Urban agriculture

Urban agriculture is a suggested strategy to increase access to fruits and vegetables and build more sustainable, self-reliant local food systems^{3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Urban agriculture is also a suggested strategy to reduce hunger and obesity^{5, 6}. Models suggest that many U.S. cities may be able to achieve near self-reliance for fresh produce, poultry, eggs, and honey⁷. Available evidence suggests that many small scale projects in an area can increase food security overall^{1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9}. However, additional evidence is needed to confirm effects.

Participating in urban agriculture activities may increase willingness to try new fruits and vegetables among urban youth, and may increase fruit and vegetable consumption, especially among youth from more advantaged communities. State and federal policy support for community food system improvements is needed to improve access to healthy foods and healthy eating behavior more broadly¹⁰. In some cases, urban agriculture activities provide entrepreneurial opportunities, which are associated with increased income for participants^{8, 11}, as well as greater levels of local business incubation, skills training, and job creation^{4, 9}. Urban agriculture may increase social capital and strengthen community connections^{1, 9, 12, 13}. Surveys suggest individuals with higher incomes may be more likely to engage in urban agriculture for environmental reasons, while those with lower incomes may be more likely to engage to improve food security¹⁴.

Urban agriculture activities may reduce fossil fuel energy used to produce, process, and transport food; reducing post-harvest storage and handling may also improve the taste and quality of food^{1, 5, 15}. Urban agriculture activities may improve air quality and reduce impervious surfaces, diminishing urban heat island effects and stormwater runoff^{1, 2, 5, 9, 16}. Other environmental benefits may include creating habitats for pollinators and increasing insect and animal biodiversity^{1, 2, 9, 16, 17}. Experts suggest such ecosystem services can contribute to climate resilience^{2, 16}. However, such benefits may not be realized if urban agriculture designs use chemicals and fertilizers, compete with native species², or require large energy inputs for year-round food production, as in some northern climates¹³.

Some urban agriculture sites may contain lead contaminated soil and require remediation before beginning activity¹⁸, although studies show minimal uptake of lead into edible plant tissue when grown in contaminated soil¹⁹. Experts suggest urban agriculture is highly unlikely to increase incidence of elevated blood lead levels among children through direct (e.g., soil ingestion) or indirect exposure (e.g., plant consumption)²⁰. Efforts to reduce lead exposure include washing and peeling produce, wearing gloves, mulching between crop rows, and planting borders of non-food perennials like flowers, to reduce dust and attract pollinators¹⁹.

Organized urban agriculture projects are often located in low income, inner city neighborhoods^{4, 11}, which may reduce disparities in access to healthy foods such as fresh fruits and vegetables. Municipal zoning policies can support urban agriculture activities by designating agricultural districts or specifying certain agricultural uses that are permitted or conditionally approved²¹. A Seattle-based study suggests urban agriculture policies and programs can benefit socio-economically disadvantaged residents by targeting city investments and permanently establishing more city land for urban agriculture. However, urban agriculture policies without explicit equity considerations may reinforce social inequities by being more beneficial for property owners¹², and surveys suggest front yard gardening is associated with homeownership, and is more common in middle- and mixed-income neighborhoods¹⁴.

Price, location, food culture, or lack of interest may be challenges to successful urban agriculture; mobile food carts or farm stands, marketing foods with taste tests and cooking demonstrations, and youth mentorship may help remove barriers to purchasing healthy food produced by urban agriculture²². Additional challenges to implementing urban agriculture initiatives include initial installation costs, limited knowledge about new farming techniques²³, and limited land availability²⁴.

Many non-profit organizations support urban agriculture efforts, for example, Cultivate Kansas City, which supports a network of farms²⁵, and Keep Growing Detroit²⁶. Some urban agriculture non-profits such as Growing Green Urban Farm in Buffalo, NY²⁷ include compost, vermicompost, aquaponics, and livestock on their farms along with outreach efforts such as farmers markets, mobile markets, community supported agriculture (CSA), and education programs. Rainier Beach Urban Farm and Wetlands is the largest urban farm in Seattle; offering education, community meals, distributing low-cost produce, and emphasizing culturally-specific foods in its programming^{12, 28}.

The Detroit Black Community Food Security Network works to build self-reliance, food security and justice in Detroit’s Black community through urban agriculture activities and other efforts²⁹. In West Oakland, CA, City Slicker Farms provides training, tools, soil tests, and supplies to encourage urban farming and backyard gardening³⁰. Weavers Way Coop in Philadelphia, PA sells large quantities of fresh produce from their own urban farms in Northwest Philadelphia³¹. Plant Chicago, located in a former meatpacking plant, is an example of an indoor urban farm³². The majority of urban rooftop farming is currently in North America, with the most examples in New York City and Chicago³³, including Brooklyn Grange, New York City’s largest rooftop farm³⁴.

State and local legislation can support urban agriculture initiatives. For example, California enacted legislation in 2013, renewed in 2017, that allows cities and counties to create incentive zones in urban areas for local food production, providing land owners a property tax break for urban agriculture or community gardening activities³⁵. Cleveland, OH adjusted its zoning to promote urban gardens and to allow residents to keep livestock; the Cleveland High Tunnel Initiative offers grants to build steel-framed high tunnel greenhouses³⁶, and the Gardening for Greenbacks program offers grants related to growing and selling produce^{16, 37}. Tennessee and West Virginia also enacted legislation addressing infrastructure barriers and liability concerns related to community gardens³⁸. Municipal policies and zoning plans in Seattle³⁹, Boston⁴⁰, and Somerville, MA⁴¹, and city government agency activities in San Francisco⁴² and Boston⁴³ are examples of local efforts to support these initiatives.

The Five Borough Farm project in New York City recommends municipal governments create urban agriculture plans and address the need for technical assistance, networking, and outreach, to increase equity in urban agriculture activities^{44, 45}. Philanthropic partnerships, such as Community Food Funders, can also support organizational capacity-building^{44, 46}.