Household lead control education interventions
Evidence Ratings
Scientifically Supported: Strategies with this rating are most likely to make a difference. These strategies have been tested in many robust studies with consistently positive results.
Some Evidence: Strategies with this rating are likely to work, but further research is needed to confirm effects. These strategies have been tested more than once and results trend positive overall.
Expert Opinion: Strategies with this rating are recommended by credible, impartial experts but have limited research documenting effects; further research, often with stronger designs, is needed to confirm effects.
Insufficient Evidence: Strategies with this rating have limited research documenting effects. These strategies need further research, often with stronger designs, to confirm effects.
Mixed Evidence: Strategies with this rating have been tested more than once and results are inconsistent or trend negative; further research is needed to confirm effects.
Evidence of Ineffectiveness: Strategies with this rating are not good investments. These strategies have been tested in many robust studies with consistently negative and sometimes harmful results. Learn more about our methods
Strategies with this rating are not good investments. These strategies have been tested in many robust studies with consistently negative and sometimes harmful results.
Evidence Ratings
Scientifically Supported: Strategies with this rating are most likely to make a difference. These strategies have been tested in many robust studies with consistently positive results.
Some Evidence: Strategies with this rating are likely to work, but further research is needed to confirm effects. These strategies have been tested more than once and results trend positive overall.
Expert Opinion: Strategies with this rating are recommended by credible, impartial experts but have limited research documenting effects; further research, often with stronger designs, is needed to confirm effects.
Insufficient Evidence: Strategies with this rating have limited research documenting effects. These strategies need further research, often with stronger designs, to confirm effects.
Mixed Evidence: Strategies with this rating have been tested more than once and results are inconsistent or trend negative; further research is needed to confirm effects.
Evidence of Ineffectiveness: Strategies with this rating are not good investments. These strategies have been tested in many robust studies with consistently negative and sometimes harmful results. Learn more about our methods
Strategies with this rating are not good investments. These strategies have been tested in many robust studies with consistently negative and sometimes harmful results.
Disparity Ratings
Potential to decrease disparities: Strategies with this rating have the potential to decrease or eliminate disparities between subgroups. Rating is suggested by evidence, expert opinion or strategy design.
Potential for mixed impact on disparities: Strategies with this rating could increase and decrease disparities between subgroups. Rating is suggested by evidence or expert opinion.
Potential to increase disparities: Strategies with this rating have the potential to increase or exacerbate disparities between subgroups. Rating is suggested by evidence, expert opinion or strategy design.
Inconclusive impact on disparities: Strategies with this rating do not have enough evidence to assess potential impact on disparities.
Strategies with this rating have the potential to increase or exacerbate disparities between subgroups. Rating is suggested by evidence, expert opinion or strategy design.
Health factors shape the health of individuals and communities. Everything from our education to our environments impacts our health. Modifying these clinical, behavioral, social, economic, and environmental factors can influence how long and how well people live, now and in the future.
Household lead control education interventions inform parents, guardians, and caregivers about lead exposure pathways through lead contaminated dust, soil, water, and air, as well as the health damages caused by chronic and acute lead exposure, including many irreversible physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems1, 2. Education sessions vary in length, frequency, and duration; group sessions are typically provided in community settings and interventions can include individual home visits1. Household education interventions may include environmental components that explain cleaning and hygiene techniques and may include temporary dust control measures such as specialized cleaning or minor repairs2. Scientists indicate there is no safe blood lead level (BLL) for individuals of any age, including fetuses3, 4. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) blood lead reference level for initiating public health actions to prevent further exposure and mitigate health effects is 3.5 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL); it is estimated that over 500,000 children have BLLs at or above this level3.
What does the research say about effectiveness?
There is strong evidence that providing education alone for parents about lead exposure pathways does not prevent lead poisoning or reduce children’s blood lead levels (BLLs)1, 2, 5. Temporary dust control measures, usually specialized cleaning efforts, have not been shown to effectively reduce children’s BLLs and in some cases, dusting and cleaning can increase childhood lead exposure by dispersing lead dust, which can be inhaled or ingested when it settles on objects that children touch2. Comprehensive, permanent lead abatement programs are needed to reduce lead exposure1, 2.
Lead is often found in paint, dust, pipes, and soil in or around homes built before 1978. Lead paint on windows and doors is particularly hazardous as friction created by the opening and closing motion often releases lead dust6. Early recommendations regarding lead control suggested that continually cleaning lead dust could mitigate its negative effects; however, studies suggest such efforts are ineffective2, 5 and can significantly increase BLLs, especially for toddlers exhibiting mouthing behaviors2.
Education interventions are often secondary prevention efforts implemented after children have elevated BLLs from lead exposure, education interventions may be more helpful as part of comprehensive primary prevention interventions that include policies and funding to remove lead hazards1, 2. Comprehensive lead poisoning prevention policies should address lead exposure risks from all pathways, including lead contaminated dust, soil, water, and air7. Education interventions that increase public awareness of lead exposure risks and trust in government communication about lead can increase support for prompt abatement of lead hazards8.
How could this strategy advance health equity? This strategy is rated potential to increase disparities: suggested by expert opinion.
Household lead control education interventions alone, without support for lead hazard removal, have the potential to increase disparities in lead exposure between children from families of color, with lower incomes, who do not own their homes, and children from white families, with higher incomes, who own their homes, since homeowners have decision-making power and many can afford to remove lead hazards from their homes9, 10. Education interventions alone are not effective in reducing childhood lead poisoning1, 2, which occurs at higher rates among children of color, from families with lower incomes, living in older homes, and living in urban areas than among their counterparts9, 11, 12. Education interventions that account for language barriers, varying literacy levels, and challenges faced by different racial or ethnic groups can improve parent knowledge of lead exposure pathways; but are not sufficient by themselves to reduce childhood lead poisoning1, 11. Experts suggest comprehensive lead poisoning prevention interventions are needed to identify lead exposure risks, offer environmental testing, and take action to abate or contain lead found in paint, soil, and pipes, especially for communities of color that are systematically disadvantaged11.
Lead hazards are a persistent environmental injustice that disproportionately affects children of color, children from families that immigrated to the U.S., children living in urban areas, and children living in areas with lower incomes1, 9, 11, 12. Disparities in BLLs between Black children and white children ages 1-5 years old have decreased in recent decades; however, disparities persist, with Black children suffering from higher BLLs and higher lead exposures than white children, even at the highest income and highest education levels11. Black children, especially younger children, also have the highest outlier BLLs; the data show potentially thousands of Black children with BLLs of 40 μg/dL or more and no children from any other racial or ethnic group with BLLs that high11.
Available data suggest that children living in households with higher education levels have lower rates of lead exposure than children living in households with less formal education, and as income levels increase, BLLs among children decrease11. Children from families with lower income levels living in areas with higher risk of lead exposure experience negative brain development and cognitive outcomes more than children from families with higher income levels living in the same higher risk areas13. Children from families with lower incomes also have higher risks of nutritional problems, especially iron deficiency, which can increase lead absorption and elevate BLLs14.
What is the relevant historical background?
By the late 19th century, lead’s toxic and harmful effects were known, yet the lead industry and many businesses profited from selling lead for use in paint, pipes, and gasoline. Lead was also part of many consumer goods, including toys and household appliances. By the 1950s, millions of children had been poisoned by lead, either chronically or acutely, and public health officials had documented the irreversible effects of childhood lead poisoning from lead exposures in paint and contaminated water10. Powerful leaders of the lead industry avoided responsibility for knowingly selling products containing toxic lead, claiming that lead poisoning was only a problem among individuals and families of color and those living in poverty and falsely suggesting that education about the risks of lead paint was all that was needed10.
Formerly redlined neighborhoods are more likely to be communities of color with lower incomes and fewer resources, affected by polluting industries and waste dumping sites, comprised of older and deteriorating houses with lead-based paint, located near lead-polluting industries, and surrounded by heavy traffic with residual effects from leaded gasoline pollution9, 11. Children of color experience disproportionate adverse exposures, including to lead, living in racially segregated, formerly redlined neighborhoods. Government disinvestment and the systematic concentration of poverty has increased and exacerbated lead hazards as housing stock deteriorates, lead water service lines degrade, and industry and waste dumping sites further contaminate the air and soil14, 15, 16.
During the 1970s and 1980s, federal regulation began to address lead air pollution after lead’s toxic effects were evident among children from families with higher incomes, not just among children from families of color with lower incomes10, 14, 17. Legislation reduced the amount of lead in gasoline, and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 banned leaded gasoline for most motor vehicles17. Lead emissions still come from other sources, including industrial processing and leaded gasoline for some aircraft, racing cars, boats, and trucks17. As of 2001, roughly 2.7 million people lived in counties that fail to meet U.S. EPA air quality standards for lead emissions, and all of these locations are near industrial sources17.
The Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act in 1971 banned lead paint as of 1978 and identified paint chips as the primary lead hazard in homes. The Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992 included lead-contaminated dust and soil in the definition of lead hazards and moved towards prevention of poisoning rather than reaction to poisoning as the national strategy for addressing lead hazards14, 17. Additional federal legislation addressing lead hazards has removed lead from consumer products, foods, pesticides, pottery and glassware, and food packaging17.
The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 established limits for lead levels in drinking water, but it wasn’t until the 1986 amendment that requirements for lead-free plumbing were included, and those did not take effect until 198814, 17. The Lead and Copper Rule of 1991 identified corrosion of lead pipes and service lines as a major source of lead-contaminated drinking water and encouraged corrosion control and line replacement. Replacement efforts that only partially replace lead pipes can dislodge lead-containing minerals and contaminate drinking water. After serious water contamination events as in Flint, Michigan and Washington, D.C. many cities are attempting to fully replace their lead water service lines; however, private connections to public service lines are typically paid for by homeowners, which may increase disparities in who has access to clean water from lead-free pipes17.
Legislation and lead hazard removal has reduced childhood lead exposure, with population level decreases in BLLs since the 1970s17. As of 2010, 23 states have adopted comprehensive lead prevention laws14. Several local and state governments have adopted legislation that requires lead testing for children at age 1 or 2, including Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, as well as Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and New York15. However, roughly half a million children age 1 to 5 still have BLLs at or above 5 μg/dL, when it is known that there is no safe blood lead level and significant disparities in lead exposure by race, ethnicity, and income remain14, 17. Although a federal program to provide nationwide lead abatement would require allocating significant funds, cost benefit analysis suggests benefits of $17-$221 for every dollar invested in lead paint hazard control due to reduced health care, special education, and crime costs as well as increased lifetime earnings and tax revenue18. Government decisions about what it is worth to save communities and people suffering from lead hazard exposure are value judgments that have been influenced by explicit and implicit bias with disastrous effects for many communities of color10. The World Health Organization estimates that lead exposure worldwide accounts for over 1 million deaths annually and over 24 million years of healthy life lost1, and as of January 2024, only 48% of countries have banned lead paint19.
Equity Considerations
- What lead poisoning prevention interventions exist in your community? Are these interventions comprehensive, with funding to remove lead hazards, or are they providing education only? If only education is being provided, why is that? What funding could be made available to prevent lead poisoning through abatement or removal of lead hazards?
- Are all pathways to lead exposure considered and addressed through preventative lead poisoning efforts in your community? What partnerships or collaborations could support addressing lead hazards in contaminated dust, soil, water, and air? How can your community gather support and coordinate efforts from public agencies, community organizations, grant funders, property owners, the public, and others for comprehensive lead poisoning prevention?
- What neighborhoods in your community have higher lead exposure risks? Who has the decision-making power to prioritize reducing disproportionate lead exposure risks?
Footnotes
* Journal subscription may be required for access.
1 Balza 2024 - Balza J, Bikomeye JC, Flynn KE. Effectiveness of educational interventions for the prevention of lead poisoning in children: A systematic review. Reviews on Environmental Health. 2024.
2 Cochrane-Nussbaumer-Streit 2020 - Nussbaumer-Streit B, Mayr V, Dobrescu AI, et al. Household interventions for preventing domestic lead exposure in children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020;(10):CD006047.
3 CDC-Lead CLPP - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Environmental Health. Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention (CLPP) program.
4 Arora 2024 - Arora J, Singal A, Jacob J, Garg S, Aeri R. Chapter 4: A systematic review of lead exposure on mental health. In: Kumar N, Jha AK. Lead toxicity mitigation: Sustainable nexus approaches. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2024:51-71.
5 Armstrong 2014 - Armstrong R, Anderson L, Synnot A, et al. Evaluation of evidence related to exposure to lead. Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council; 2014.
6 US EPA-Lead - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). Lead: Lead poisoning is preventable.
7 Zartarian 2017 - Zartarian V, Xue J, Tornero-Velez R, Brown J. Children’s lead exposure: A multimedia modeling analysis to guide public health decision-making. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2017;125(9):097009.
8 Goebel 2023 - Goebel M, Wardropper CB. Trust and subjective knowledge influence perceived risk of lead exposure. Risk Analysis. 2023;44(5):1204-1218.
9 Lynch 2020 - Lynch EE, Meier HCS. The intersectional effect of poverty, home ownership, and racial/ethnic composition on mean childhood blood lead levels in Milwaukee County neighborhoods. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(6):e0234995.
10 Bloomberg-Bliss 2016 - Bliss L. The long, ugly history of the politics of lead poisoning. Bloomberg. February 9, 2016.
11 Teye 2021 - Teye SO, Yanosky JD, Cuffee Y, et al. Exploring persistent racial/ethnic disparities in lead exposure among American children aged 1–5 years: Results from NHANES 1999–2016. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2021;94:723-730.
12 White 2015 - White BM, Bonilha HS, Ellis C. Racial/ethnic differences in childhood blood lead levels among children <72 months of age in the United States: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. 2015:1-9.
13 Marshall 2020a - Marshall AT, Betts S, Kan EC, et al. Association of lead-exposure risk and family income with childhood brain outcomes. Nature Medicine. 2020;26:91-97.
14 Hauptman 2023 - Hauptman M, Rogers ML, Scarpaci M, Morin B, Vivier PM. Neighborhood disparities and the burden of lead poisoning. Pediatric Research. 2023;94:826-836.
15 Howarth 2023 - Howarth MV, Eiser AR. Environmentally mediated health disparities. American Journal of Medicine. 2023;136(6):518-522.
16 Bravo 2022 - Bravo MA, Zephyr D, Kowal D, Ensor K, Miranda ML. Racial residential segregation shapes the relationship between early childhood lead exposure and fourth-grade standardized test scores. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2022;119(34):e2117868119.
17 Dignam 2019 - Dignam T, Kaufmann RB, LeStourgeon L, Brown MJ. Control of lead sources in the United States, 1970-2017: Public health progress and current challenges to eliminating lead exposure. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice. 2019;25:S13-S22.
18 Gould 2009 - Gould E. Childhood lead poisoning: Conservative estimates of the social and economic benefits of lead hazard control. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2009;117(7):1162-1167.
19 WHO-Lead paint - World Health Organization (WHO). Legally-binding controls on lead paint.
Related What Works for Health Strategies
To see citations and implementation resources for this strategy, visit:
countyhealthrankings.org/strategies-and-solutions/what-works-for-health/strategies/household-lead-control-education-interventions
To see all strategies:
countyhealthrankings.org/whatworks