Child-focused advertising restrictions for unhealthy foods & beverages
Child-focused advertising restrictions for unhealthy foods and beverages minimize corporate appeals to children and adolescents who may not be aware of persuasive intent. Restrictions can prohibit unhealthy food and beverage advertising during children’s television programming, incentivize healthy food advertising, or ban product placement of unhealthy foods and beverages in children’s movies1. Restrictions can also be implemented through school wellness policies, or be legislated at the local, state, or federal level. In 2017, children viewed on average approximately 10 television ads per day for foods, beverages, and restaurants. Such advertisements were mostly for foods of little or no nutritional value2, 3. As of 2021, children’s television watching is decreasing as digital and mobile media consumption is increasing; however, advertising exposure remains high overall and companies continue to advertise their unhealthiest foods the most heavily4.
Note: Some research on the effectiveness of advertising restrictions for children has focused on body mass index (BMI) or obesity rate outcomes, which have a problematic history. This evidence summary does not focus on research on those outcomes. Weight-focused research and healthcare practice have relied on weight and BMI as a proxy for health, however, research has identified other components of health that are more important to measure to predict an individual’s risk of mortality, chronic disease, cardiovascular disease, and other leading causes of death and disability.
What could this strategy improve?
Expected Benefits
Our evidence rating is based on the likelihood of achieving these outcomes:
Improved dietary habits
Reduced unhealthy food consumption
What does the research say about effectiveness?
There is some evidence that child-focused advertising restrictions for unhealthy foods and beverages improve children’s dietary habits and decrease unhealthy food consumption5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Additional evidence is needed to confirm effects.
Children’s food preferences, choices, and short-term consumption are negatively affected by unhealthy food advertising5, 7, 10, 11, 12, including the use of familiar cartoon media characters13, 14. For preschool-aged children, exposure to advertising for high-sugar breakfast cereals is associated with increased consumption15.
Unhealthy food advertising bans that cover an entire area can affect families’ purchasing decisions16. Removing advertisements of one brand of bubble gum for all age groups is associated with reduced household purchases17. Some researchers recommend that schools eliminate all food marketing18, while others recommend marketing only healthy options18, 19, 20. School districts appear more likely to restrict advertisements for unhealthy foods if state-level policy guidance is provided21.
Child development experts suggest social media-based advertising for unhealthy foods may be harder for children and youth to recognize than other types of advertising22. Successful advertising restrictions may need to include stricter regulations to protect children from new forms of marketing techniques that promote unhealthy foods10, 23. Studies suggest voluntary regulations adopted by the food and beverage industry do not significantly improve the nutritional quality of foods marketed to children24 or reduce children’s exposure to unhealthy food advertising25. Although many companies restrict marketing to children younger than six, preschool-aged children are still exposed to food-related advertisements during programming for older children26.
How could this strategy advance health equity? This strategy is rated potential to decrease disparities: suggested by expert opinion.
Child-focused advertising restrictions for unhealthy foods and beverages have the potential to decrease disparities in food marketing, which companies disproportionately aim at Black and Hispanic youth more than white youth4. One school district survey suggests that large urban school districts serving mostly students of color are more likely to restrict advertisements for sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) than small or medium-sized, suburban or rural, and majority white districts35. The amount of time youth spent watching TV appears to have declined from 2017 to 2021 alongside increases in mobile and digital media consumption; however, companies’ ad campaigns continue to target Black and Hispanic youth more than white youth, exposing Black youth and adults to 9-21% more advertising of unhealthy foods than white audiences4. A study of children’s television programming suggests that foods advertised on Spanish-language channels are less healthy than those advertised on English-language channels4, 36. Additionally, there is more child-directed marketing at fast food restaurants located in rural areas than urban areas, in middle-income than high-income areas, and majority Black than majority white communities37.
Experts suggest unhealthy food marketing directed at Black and Hispanic children may be one of many contributors to health disparities in the U.S.4. Available evidence shows that exposing children to unhealthy food advertising negatively influences food consumption and dietary habits38. Processed foods made with refined grains and added sugars, fats, and preservatives are heavily marketed, generally inexpensive, and readily available in communities with lower incomes39. Families with lower incomes may not be able to purchase high-quality nutrient-dense foods such as fresh fruits and vegetables with limited budgets and limited access to such foods39. An epidemic of chronic diseases is linked to the American diet and its high content of calories and sugar40 and advertising unhealthy foods to children, especially children of color, exacerbates the problem and health disparities38.
What is the relevant historical background?
In the 1900s, companies and marketers in the U.S. began to advertise their products directly to children using product placement in storybooks, on the radio, and in schools, as well as developing clubs, prizes, and rewards for purchasing their products41. Advertising options to reach children further increased in the 1950s as television programs for children were developed and companies began using cartoon characters to appeal to children41. By the mid-1970s, consumer advocacy groups began raising serious concerns about the vast proliferation of advertising targeting children and teens41. In 1978, after evaluating the impacts of marketing aimed at children, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) proposed regulations for advertisements aired during children’s television programming42. Congress responded negatively to these proposals and limited the power of the FTC to enforce any regulations and temporarily failed to renew FTC funding42. In 1990, Congress passed the Children’s Television Act that outlined only two requirements for broadcasters, that they provide three hours of children’s programming per week and that commercial time during children’s programming is limited to 12 minutes per hour or less on weekdays and 10.5 minutes per hour or less on weekends42. With minimal regulations in place, advertising to children continued to expand through television advertisements, toys and promotions, and on the internet41.
Food advertising affects children differently than adults. Since children’s brains are still developing, they cannot understand persuasive intent or perceive and evaluate the potential risks or dangers associated with advertised products38, 43, 44. Studies have shown that unhealthy food advertising increases children’s desire to eat unhealthy food and decreases their consumption of healthy foods38, 42. Companies and advertisers often invoke First Amendment rights for commercial speech to try to legally protect advertising and falsely suggest that advertising is ‘accurate and truthful’ and does not need to be regulated38. Experts suggest regulations can and should protect vulnerable young people from advertising that they are not yet capable of understanding or evaluating in the way that adult consumers can43, 44.
Many countries restrict marketing any commercial products to children, including food and beverages, as in Costa Rica, Hungary, Norway, Quebec, Spain, and Sweden30, 42. Some countries restrict food marketing to children based on nutrition profiling, either for all foods as in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Chile, and Taiwan, or within specific food categories as in Ecuador, Mexico, Poland, South Korea, Turkey, and Uruguay30. Companies are also not allowed to sponsor children’s television shows in Norway and Finland42. Commercials are not allowed during children’s programming in Belgium, nor are they allowed five minutes before or after the program42. Regulations vary; however, most protect children and adolescents who are 12 to 15 years old or younger and most focus on television advertising during children’s programming30.
Equity Considerations
- Are there child-focused advertising restrictions for unhealthy foods and beverages in your community? In your schools? How can advertising restrictions be designed to reduce disparities in marketing, especially marketing aimed at Black and Hispanic youth?
- How are advertising restrictions implemented and enforced in your community? Who is making the decisions about advertising restrictions and child-focused protections? Does your community have a local Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) station supporting children’s programming?
- What other interventions, such as increasing the marketing of healthier alternatives or reducing the costs of healthier foods and beverages, could be paired with the advertising restrictions to support positive change?
Implementation Examples
As of 2017, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) requires that in-school food and beverage advertisements meet the national Smart Snacks in School nutrition standards27. State legislation also supports school wellness policies and healthy lifestyle interventions, which can include advertising restriction guidelines28. Maine, for example, bans advertising of junk food at school29. There are regulations to restrict advertising to children and adolescents in at least 16 countries, especially for unhealthy foods and beverages30, 31.
Companies selling food and beverages spend almost $14 billion every year on advertisements and 80% of that is spent marketing unhealthy foods, sugar sweetened beverages, and candy. This marketing is often targeted to promote their least healthy products among children and teenagers and Black and Hispanic communities32.
The non-profit Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) provides educational children’s programming which restricts advertising, allowing only short credits to its funders which do not market to children. Credits to food and beverage companies undergo a higher standard of review, aligning with PBS’ commitment to fostering health, well-being, and nutrition for children33. However, PBS faces funding challenges after its federal funding, via the now-dissolved Corporation for Public Broadcasting, was eliminated by Congress in the Rescissions Act of 202534.
Implementation Resources
‡ Resources with a focus on equity.
ChangeLab-School wellness policies - ChangeLab Solutions. Food & beverage marketing in school wellness policies: Model policy language for limiting unhealthy marketing to students.
ChangeLab-Food marketing 2017 - ChangeLab Solutions. Restricting food and beverage marketing in schools. 2017.
AHA-VFHK toolkits - American Heart Association (AHA). Voices for healthy kids (VFHK): Resources and toolkits.
LHC-Rockeymoore 2014 - Rockeymoore M, Moscetti C, Fountain A. Rural childhood obesity prevention toolkit. Leadership for Healthy Communities (LHC), Center for Global Policy Solutions, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation; 2014.
Footnotes
* Journal subscription may be required for access.
1 LHC-Rockeymoore 2014 - Rockeymoore M, Moscetti C, Fountain A. Rural childhood obesity prevention toolkit. Leadership for Healthy Communities (LHC), Center for Global Policy Solutions, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation; 2014.
2 Rudd-Harris 2019 - Harris JL, Frazier W, Kumanyika S, et al. Increasing disparities in unhealthy food advertising targeted to Hispanic and Black youth. University of Connecticut Rudd Center For Food Policy And Obesity. 2019.
3 Rudd-Frazier 2018 - Frazier WC III, Harris JL. Trends in television food advertising to young people: 2017 update. Yale Rudd Center For Food Policy And Obesity. 2018.
4 Rudd-Targeted marketing - Rudd Center for Food Policy & Obesity. (n.d.). Targeted marketing: Black and Hispanic youth are exposed to more food advertising and other forms of food marketing in the media and their communities compared to white youth.
5 Boyland 2012 - Boyland EJ, Halford JCG. Regulation of food advertising to children on television: Is it necessary and does it work? CAB Reviews. 2012;7(65):1–10.
6 NBER-Grossman 2012 - Grossman M, Tekin E, Wada R. Fast-food restaurant advertising on television and its influence on youth body composition. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). 2012: Working Paper 18640.
7 IOM-Food marketing 2006 - Food and Nutrition Board; Board on Children, Youth and Families. Food marketing to children and youth: Threat or opportunity? (McGinnis JM, Gootman JA, Kraak VI, eds.). Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine (IOM); 2006.
8 Veerman 2009 - Veerman JL, Van Beeck EF, Barendregt JJ, Mackenbach JP. By how much would limiting TV food advertising reduce childhood obesity? European Journal of Public Health. 2009;19(4):365–9.
9 AHA-Mozaffarian 2012 - Mozaffarian, D., Afshin, A., Benowitz, N.L., Bittner, V., Daniels, S.R., Franch, H.A., Jacobs, D.R., Kraus, W.E., Kris-Etherton, P.M., Krummel, D.A., Popkin, B.M., Whitsel, L.P., & Zakai, N.A. (2012). Population approaches to improve diet, physical activity, and smoking habits: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association (AHA). Circulation, 126(12), 1514-1563.
10 Folkvord 2018 - Folkvord F, van’t Riet, J. The persuasive effect of advergames promoting unhealthy foods among children: A meta-analysis. Appetite. 2018;129(1):245-251.
11 Boyland 2016 - Boyland EJ, Nolan S, Kelly B, et al. Advertising as a cue to consume: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of acute exposure to unhealthy food and nonalcoholic beverage advertising on intake in children and adults. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2016;103(2):519-533.
12 Sadeghirad 2016 - Sadeghirad B, Duhaney T, Motaghipisheh S, et al. Influence of unhealthy food and beverage marketing on children's dietary intake and preference: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Obesity Reviews. 2016;17(10):945-959.
13 Kraak 2015 - Kraak VI, Story M. Influence of food companies' brand mascots and entertainment companies' cartoon media characters on children's diet and health: A systematic review and research needs. Obesity Reviews. 2015;16(2):107-126.
14 Smits 2015 - Smits T, Vandebosch H, Neyens E, et al. The persuasiveness of child-targeted endorsement strategies: A systematic review. Annals of the International Communication Association. 2015;39(1):311-337.
15 Longacre 2017 - Longacre MR, Drake KM, Titus LJ, et al. Child-targeted TV advertising and preschoolers’ consumption of high-sugar breakfast cereals. Appetite. 2017;108:295-302.
16 Dhar 2011 - Dhar T, Baylis K. Fast-food consumption and the ban on advertising targeting children: The Quebec experience. Journal of Marketing Research. 2011;48(5):799-813.
17 Huang 2013b - Huang R, Yang M. Buy what is advertised on television? Evidence from bans on child-directed food advertising. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 2013;32(2):207-222.
18 McKenna 2010 - McKenna ML. Policy options to support healthy eating in schools. Canadian Journal of Public Health. Revue Canadienne de Santé Publique. 2010;101(8 Suppl 2):S14-7.
19 Dixon 2007 - Dixon HG, Scully ML, Wakefield MA, White VM, Crawford DA. The effects of television advertisements for junk food versus nutritious food on children’s food attitudes and preferences. Social Science & Medicine. 2007;65(7):1311-23.
20 Story 2008 - Story M, Kaphingst KM, Robinson-O’Brien R, Glanz K. Creating healthy food and eating environments: Policy and environmental approaches. Annual Review of Public Health. 2008;29:253-72.
21 Merlo 2018 - Merlo CL, Michael S, Brener ND, et al. State-level guidance and district-level policies and practices for food marketing in U.S. school districts. Preventing Chronic Disease. 2018;15:E74.
22 Powell 2013b - Powell LM, Harris JL, Fox T. Food marketing expenditures aimed at youth putting the numbers in context. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2013;45(4):453-461.
23 Dietz 2013 - Dietz W. New strategies to improve food marketing to children. Health Affairs. 2013;32(9):1652-1658.
24 Kunkel 2015 - Kunkel DL, Castonguay JS, Filer CR. Evaluating industry self-regulation of food marketing to children. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2015; 49(2):181-187.
25 Galbraith-Emami 2013 - Galbraith-Emami S, Lobstein T. The impact of initiatives to limit the advertising of food and beverage products to children: A systematic review. Obesity Reviews. 2013;14(2):960-974.
26 Harris 2018 - Harris JL, Kalnova, SS. Food and beverage TV advertising to young children: Measuring exposure and potential impact. Appetite. 2018;123:49-55.
27 ChangeLab-Food marketing 2017 - ChangeLab Solutions. Restricting food and beverage marketing in schools. 2017.
28 NCSL Winterfeld 2014a - Winterfeld A. State actions to reduce and prevent childhood obesity in schools and communities: Summary and analysis of trends in legislation. National Conference of State Legislators (NCSL); 2014.
29 Whatley-Blum 2011 - Whatley-Blum JE, Beaudoin CM, O’Brien LM, et al. Impact of Maine’s statewide nutrition policy on high school food environments. Preventing Chronic Disease. 2011;8(1):A19.
30 Taillie 2019 - Taillie, L. S., Busey, E., Stoltze, F. M., & Dillman Carpentier, F. R. (November 2019). Governmental policies to reduce unhealthy food marketing to children. Nutrition Reviews, 77(11), 787–816.
31 WHO-Marketing framework 2012 - World Health Organization (WHO). A framework for implementing the set of recommendations on the marketing of foods and non-alcoholic beverages to children. Geneva, CH: World Health Organization (WHO); 2012.
32 Rudd-Food marketing - Rudd Center for Food Policy & Obesity. (n.d.). Research: Food marketing. Retrieved October 6, 2026.
33 PBS-Funding standards - Public Broadcasting System (PBS). (2018, September 26). PBS funding standards & practices. Retrieved October 16, 2026.
34 HR 4 - 119th Congress 2025-2026. (2025). House of Representatives (HR) 4: Rescissions Act of 2025.
35 Merlo 2016 - Merlo CL, Michael S, Brener ND, et al. Differences in food and beverage marketing policies and practices in U.S. school districts, by demographic characteristics of school districts, 2012. Preventing Chronic Disease. 2016;13:E169.
36 Kunkel 2013 - Kunkel D, Mastro D, Ortiz M, et al. Food marketing to children on U.S. Spanish-language television. Journal of Health Communication. 2013;18(9):1084-1096.
37 Ohri-Vachaspati 2015 - Ohri-Vachaspati P, Isgor Z, Rimkus L, et al. Child-directed marketing inside and on the exterior of fast food restaurants. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2015;48(1):22-30.
38 Boyland 2023 - Boyland, E. (2023). Is it ethical to advertise unhealthy foods to children? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 82(3), 234–240.
39 Tylka 2014 - Tylka, T. L., Annunziato, R. A., Burgard, D., Daníelsdóttir, S., Shuman, E., Davis, C., & Calogero, R. M. (2014). The weight-inclusive versus weight-normative approach to health: Evaluating the evidence for prioritizing well-being over weight loss. Journal of Obesity, 2014, 1–18.
40 Temple 2022a - Temple NJ. The origins of the obesity epidemic in the USA–Lessons for today. Nutrients. 2022;14(20):4253.
41 Duke Library-Advertising - Duke University Libraries Exhibits. (n.d.). Look boys and girls! Advertising to children in the 20th century. Retrieved October 1, 2026.
42 Ramsey 2006 - Ramsey, W. A. (April 2006). Rethinking regulation of advertising aimed at children. Federal Communications Law Journal, 58(2), Article 6.
43 Harris 2012 - Harris, J. L., & Graff, S. K. (2012). Protecting young people from junk food advertising: Implications of psychological research for First Amendment law. American Journal of Public Health, 102(2), 214–222.
44 Browne 2009 - Browne, M. N., Biksacky, L. F., & Frondorf, A. (December 2009). Advertising to children and the commercial speech doctrine: Political and constitutional limitations. Drake Law Review, 58, 67-122.
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