Alcohol days of sale restrictions
States and municipalities can limit when alcohol can be sold in on-premise settings such as bars and restaurants or in off-premise outlets such as liquor and convenience stores. Regulations regarding on- and off-premise alcohol sales vary by state; most policies that limit days of sale focus on weekend days, usually Sunday. Some states and municipalities also place limits on times of sale1.
What could this strategy improve?
Expected Benefits
Our evidence rating is based on the likelihood of achieving these outcomes:
Reduced excessive drinking
Reduced alcohol-related harms
Reduced crime
What does the research say about effectiveness?
There is some evidence that restricting the days alcohol can be sold prevents excessive alcohol consumption, prevents increases in overall alcohol consumption1, 2, reduces alcohol-related harms, such as alcohol-related crashes and drunk driving1, 3, 4, and reduces crime5, 6, 7, 8. Additional evidence is needed to confirm effects.
Overall, repealing limits on days of sale in on- and off-premise settings has been shown to increase alcohol consumption in the United States and abroad1, 2, 9; for every additional day of sales permitted, there is a 3.4% increase in alcohol consumption2. One Connecticut-based study suggests repealing Sunday alcohol sales bans was associated with a short-term increase in alcohol sales but the effect did not last10. The repeal of Sunday sales bans in Georgia had no impact on teenage drinking11.
Limits on days of sale in off-setting premises may reduce alcohol-related violence and injuries1, 3, 12. Repealing Sunday alcohol sales bans is associated with increases in homicides and suicides5 and in violent and property crime6. The repeal of Sunday sales bans in Virginia was associated with increases in minor and alcohol-related crime8, and in Philadelphia it was associated with increases in overall crime levels7.
Limits on the times of sale may also affect alcohol consumption and related harms. Overall, available evidence suggests restrictions on times of sale may be associated with decreases in alcohol-related harms13 but have mixed effects on drunk driving13, 14. Increasing hours of sale by two or more hours has been shown to increase alcohol consumption and related harms in on-premise settings in Europe and Australia; effects are less certain when hours of sale are increased by less than two hours1, 12, 13.
How could this strategy advance health equity? This strategy is rated inconclusive impact on disparities.
It is unclear what impact alcohol sales restrictions may have on disparities in alcohol consumption and alcohol-related harms. Available evidence suggests that increasing times or days of alcohol sales may disproportionately increase alcohol-related harms in neighborhoods with low incomes3.
Blacks and Latinos experience disproportionate personal and social consequences of alcohol use, including alcohol use disorder symptoms and various social problems, compared with other racial and ethnic groups when consuming similar levels of alcohol16. Alcohol consumers who are Black or Hispanic appear more likely to experience alcohol-related injuries, accidents, and health and social consequences than consumers who are white. These racial and ethnic disparities are seen across all levels of consumption and may be most pronounced at low levels of consumption, suggesting there are environmental and cultural factors at play17, 18. Evidence suggests that the combined effects of drinking cultures, historically rooted patterns of racial discrimination and persistent socioeconomic disadvantage in racialized groups contribute to these disparities19.
What is the relevant historical background?
Alcohol is deeply rooted in American life and history. Prior to the American Revolution, alcohol was perceived as an invigorating and restorative beverage that did not spoil easily and was safer than water. Its taxation provided a major source of revenue for colonial governments20. After the American Revolution, the temperance and women’s rights movements shifted societal perspectives of alcohol and led efforts for its banishment. These efforts led to the adoption of the 18th Amendment in 1920, which banned the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcohol across the U.S., also known as Prohibition21. Prohibition ended in 1933 in large part because of the need to generate tax revenue and stimulate job growth during the Great Depression and gave states authority to regulate alcohol, and each have approached regulation differently20. Today, the federal government has limited authority to impose national-level rules and regulations and there continues to be a patchwork of alcohol regulations that vary by state. Some state legislatures have preempted local government from implementing certain regulations and laws22.
Throughout history, alcohol misuse was seen as a personal failing. This evolved over the 19th century as the addictive properties of alcohol were understood20. Alcohol use disorder is now seen as a chronic disease that is influenced by genetics, neighborhood disadvantage, stress, access to alcohol, drinking cultures and contexts, and alcohol-industry influences23, 24.
The alcohol industry is viewed by public health and academia as legitimate partners in the development of national alcohol policy. Since the 1950s the alcohol industry has intervened and influenced research and policy to help normalize drinking, reproduce industry narratives regarding the causes of alcohol harms, and reduce regulation25. For example, the alcohol industry-funds research designed to establish the benefits of alcohol use. These attempts to influence public perceptions of alcohol have the potential to confuse public opinion about the health effects of alcohol, discredit independent scientists, damage the integrity of science, and discourage or delay implementation of effective alcohol policies26.
Equity Considerations
- Are alcohol sales restrictions by time or day already implemented in your community? If not, could sales restrictions be introduced and implemented?
- Who can you partner with to bring time and days of alcohol sales restrictions to your community?
- Who could benefit the most from time and days of alcohol sales restrictions in your community?
Implementation Examples
As of January 2023, Sunday alcohol sales bans at off-premise locations remain in 8 states; these states allow local governments to permit Sunday sales as an exception to a state ban. Since 1998, 12 states have repealed the Sunday sales bans15.
Footnotes
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1 CG-Alcohol - The Guide to Community Preventive Services (The Community Guide). Excessive alcohol consumption.
2 Sherk 2017 - Sherk, A., Stockwell, T., Chikritzhs, T., Andréasson, S., Angus, C., Gripenberg, J., Holder, H., Holmes, J., Mäkelä, P., Mills, M., Norström, T., Ramstedt, M., & Woods, J. (2018). Alcohol consumption and the physical availability of take-away alcohol: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the days and hours of sale and outlet density. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 79(1), 58–67.
3 SAMHSA-Alcohol misuse 2022 - Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2022). Implementing community-level policies to prevent alcohol misuse (Evidence-based Resource Series).
4 Middleton 2010 - Middleton, J. C., Hahn, R. A., Kuzara, J. L., Elder, R., Brewer, R., Chattopadhyay, S., Fielding, J., Naimi, T. S., Toomey, T., & Lawrence, B. (2010). Effectiveness of policies maintaining or restricting days of alcohol sales on excessive alcohol consumption and related harms. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 39(6), 575–589.
5 Nicosia 2023 - Nicosia, N., Smart, R., & Schell, T. L. (2023). Effects of restricting alcohol sales on fatal violence: Evidence from Sunday sales bans. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 253, 110982.
6 Yoruk 2018 - Yörük, B. K., & Lee, J. (2018). Did legalization of Sunday alcohol sales increase crime in the United States? Evidence from seven states. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 79(6), 816–825.
7 Han 2016 - Han S, Branas CC, Macdonald JM. The effect of a Sunday liquor-sales ban repeal on crime: A triple-difference analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2016;40(5):1111-1121.
8 Heaton 2012 - Heaton P. Sunday liquor laws and crime. Journal of Public Economics. 2012;96(1-2):42-52.
9 Yoruk 2013 - Yörük BK. Legalization of Sunday alcohol sales and alcohol consumption in the United States. Addiction. 2013;109(1):55-61.
10 Connolly 2024 - Connolly, C., Graziano, M., McDonnell, A., & Steinbach, S. (2023). In Cervisia Veritas: The impact of repealing Sunday blue laws on alcohol sales and retail competition. Journal of Wine Economics, 18(4), 312–323.
11 Meany 2018 - Meany, B., Berning, J., Smith, T., & Rejesus, R. M. (2018). The effect of Sunday alcohol sales bans on teen drinking in Georgia. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 40(3), 461–481.
12 Sanchez-Ramirez 2018 - Sanchez-Ramirez, D. C., & Voaklander, D. (2018). The impact of policies regulating alcohol trading hours and days on specific alcohol-related harms: A systematic review. Injury Prevention, 24(1), 94–100.
13 Nepal 2020 - Nepal, S., Kypri, K., Tekelab, T., Hodder, R. K., Attia, J., Bagade, T., Chikritzhs, T., & Miller, P. (2020). Effects of extensions and restrictions in alcohol trading hours on the incidence of assault and unintentional injury: Systematic review. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 81(1), 5–23.
14 Grattan 2019 - Grattan, L. E., Mengistu, B. S., Bullock, S. H., Santo, T. J., & Jackson, D. D. (2019). Restricting retail hours of alcohol sales within an army community. Military Medicine, 184(9–10), e400–e405.
15 APIS - Alcohol Policy Information System (APIS). Welcome to the Alcohol Policy Information System.
16 Mulia 2017 - Mulia N, Karriker-Jaffe KJ, Witbrodt J, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in 30-year trajectories of heavy drinking in a nationally representative U.S. sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2017;170:133-141.
17 Delker 2016 - Delker E, Brown Q, Hasin DS. Alcohol consumption in demographic subpopulations: An epidemiologic overview. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews. 2016;38(1):7-15.
18 Witbrodt 2014 - Witbrodt J, Mulia N, Zemore SE, Kerr WC. Racial/ethnic disparities in alcohol-related problems: Differences by gender and level of heavy drinking. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2014;38(6):1662-1670.
19 Vaeth 2017 - Vaeth PAC, Wang-Schweig M, Caetano R. Drinking, alcohol use disorder, and treatment access and utilization among U.S. racial/ethnic groups. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 2017;41(1):6-19.
20 Olson 1985 - Olson S, Gerstein DR. Alcohol in America: Taking action to prevent abuse. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 1985.
21 Aaron 1981 - Aaron P, Musto D. Temperance and prohibition in America: A historical overview. In: Alcohol and public policy: Beyond the shadow of prohibition. Moore MH, Gerstein DR eds. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 1981.
22 APIS-State Preemption - Alcohol Policy Information System (APIS). About alcohol policy.
23 Zapolski 2014 - Zapolski TCB, Pedersen SL, McCarthy DM, Smith GT. Less drinking, yet more problems: Understanding African American drinking and related problems. Psychological Bulletin. 2014;140(1).
24 Sudhinaraset 2016 - Sudhinaraset M, Wigglesworth C, Takeuchi DT. Social and cultural contexts of alcohol use: Influences in a social–ecological framework. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews. 2016;38(1):35-45.
25 Maani 2023 - Maani N, Ci Van Schalkwyk M, Petticrew M. Under the influence: System-level effects of alcohol industry-funded health information organizations. Health Promotion International. 2023;38(6):1-9.
26 Babor 2013 - Babor TF, Robaina K. Public health, academic medicine, and the alcohol industry’s corporate social responsibility activities. American Journal of Public Health. 2013;103(2):206-214.
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